Lecture Summaries

--Reconstruction-- during and after the Civil War, debate concerned the best way to reorganize the South-- after Lincoln's death, new President Andrew Johnson adopted lenient plans for readmitting seceded states, and Congressmen elected under these rules were often former Confederate officials-- the question of former slaves also caused debate-- the 13th Amendment (1865) outlawing slavery was ratified by new Southern governments, but was often undercut by the passage of restrictive "Black Codes"-- Johnson vetoed extensions of the Freedmen's Bureau and Civil Rights Acts-- Congress responded with passage of the 14th Amendment (1868), clarifying citizenship and due process, but most of the South rejected it-- Radicals in Congress imposed "military reconstruction", setting standards for the formation of Southern governments while stationing federal troops in the region-- conflicts with Congress resulted in Johnson's impeachment and near-removal from office-- in 1868, General Ulysses Grant won the presidency as a Republican, and was re-elected in 1872 despite scandal and corruption-- Congressional Reconstruction continued with the 15th Amendment (1870), guaranteeing voting rights-- to Southerners, Reconstruction implied a destruction of the social system, with "carpetbaggers" and "scalawags" conspiring with Radical Republicans in favor of freedmen-- vigilante groups such as the KKK murdered and terrorized former slaves and supporters of reconstruction-- Congress passed acts to protect against violent acts, but it was the last stage of "Radical" Reconstruction-- in the early 1870's "redeemers" regained control of most Southern states

--1876 election-- NY governor Tilden (D) won the popular vote over Ohio governor Rutherford Hayes (R), and seemed to have won the electoral vote-- however, federal authorities in several Southern states controlled vote-counting, and certified returns that switched victory from Tilden to Hayes-- the confusion surrounding two sets of returns caused the appointment of an Electoral Commission, which voted on party lines to support Hayes' victory-- to persuade Democrats to accept the result, the "Compromise of 1877" gave Democrats certain concessions, and also signaled an end to Reconstruction

--America in 1877-- the country's population was concentrated in the northeast, with much of the West still organized into territories-- just over a quarter of Americans lived in urban areas-- most of the African-American population lived in the rural South, where the post-slavery economic system often tied them to the land and kept them economically vulnerable-- immigration increased the population, but migrants largely came from "old" sources such as England and Germany-- the country had just gone through an economic depression, with unemployment and business failure-- in politics, the country was evenly divided between Republicans and Democrats, and politics excited the passions of citizens through direct participation

--Industrialization-- the Gilded Age saw an increase in the already-advancing process of industrialization, and the concept of the "corporation" emerged-- by 1900, the US held 23.6% of the world manufacturing market-- the Civil War diverted resources away from industrialization, but also helped the growth of "big business" by leading the way in concentration of capital and building large bureaucracies-- industrialization itself advanced in scores of small companies which gradually grew in size and output-- transportation, technology and communication advances helped expansion

--"big business"-- growth in most industries prompted consolidation and the rise of the large corporation-- big firms were more efficient than smaller firms, and large companies gained even more advantages in competition-- among the biggest of these corporations were in the steel and oil industries-- many firms practiced vertical or horizontal integration-- vertical integration gave a company control either over its supply line, its product's marketing, or both-- horizontal integration gave one firm a controlling interest (through a "trust" or other arrangements) over other companies in the field-- an example was Standard Oil's agreements which gave it 90% control of the market-- leading industrialists were Andrew Carnegie, J.P. Morgan, and John D. Rockefeller-- Rockefeller's Standard Oil was the best-known corporation, which had been built by Rockefeller's early entry into refining and then through "cut-throat" business deals which eliminated competition, put others under Standard's "trust", and gained preferential railroad rates

--railroad expansion-- railroads were another growing "industry"-- they were important in developing "pools" or "gentlemen's agreements" to divide up territories and routes, and to set common rates-- they also made available new markets for other industries, through their expansion of rail mileage in the Gilded Age-- railroads also had a cultural and social effect, as they tied the nation together and even instituted time zones on their own authority

--Taylorism and industrial efficiency-- growing industries looked for ways to become more efficient and productive, and analysis of the production line followed-- Frederick Taylor began efficiency studies (made famous to the public in the early 20th century), breaking down each aspect of a work-task and mandating the "best way" to do the job-- it was part of a process of taking control of work habits away from workers and placing it in managerial hands-- efficiency studies and cost-cutting measures were not limited to Taylor, and were probably inevitable once "big business" emerged

--From Workshop to Factory-- by the Gilded Age, many workers had become part of the factory system, and had lost the more relaxed traditions of the smaller "workshops"-- factories regulated labor habits, and a loss of "worker's control" became more prevalent-- employment shifted away from "labor aristocrats" of the skilled trades toward unskilled and semi-skilled labor, and a loss of status affected all-- wages declined in the late 19th century, and though prices also declined, many workers were at or below the poverty line

--labor organization-- guilds and unions were not new to the Gilded Age, but increasing pressures on labor created new movements-- the two primary national approaches were to create an inclusive union (Knights of Labor), or a more restricted association based on skilled workers (American Federation of Labor)-- the Knights became a national organization in the 1870's under Terence Powderly-- the Knights proposed to elevate the status of all "producers" through cooperatives, and opened membership to nearly all regardless of occupation, race or gender-- rapid growth resulted in membership of 750,000 in the mid 80's, but dissension over the group's goals and a series of setbacks doomed the Knights-- the AF of L was founded in the mid 80's as a collection of skilled tradesmen, led by Samuel Gompers-- the AF of L approach was to focus on immediate objectives such as wages and hours, and this "business unionism" attracted 1 million members by 1900-- AFL unions generally excluded unskilled workers as well as women and blacks

--labor unrest-- 1877-- the Great Railroad Strike grew out of wage cuts and spread across the country-- eventually, lack of leadership and government intervention broke the strike, but deaths and damage resulted-- 1886-- demonstrations in favor of the 8-hour day created tensions-- in Chicago, a rally held at Haymarket Square to protest police activity turned violent when a bomb killed and wounded dozens-- this gave labor organizations a radical public image-- in 1892, a lockout at the Carnegie Steel plant in Homestead turned violent-- in 1894, wage cuts for Pullman Sleeping Car workers triggered a national rail boycott-- as in 1877, government intervention broke the strike

--social mobility-- the development of the factory system led some to question their belief in social mobility and the gospel of success-- if laborers did not have the ability to better themselves through work and initiative, did that create a danger of a rigid class system?-- some Americans believed that the "labor question" endangered national stability

-- Rise of the City-- by 1900, the urban population had increased to nearly 40%-- three cities numbered over a million residents, and the number of small- and medium-sized cities also increased-- the sources for the population increase were rural-to-urban migration (because of better job opportunity and farming conditions) and foreign immigration-- urban geography changed because of transportation advances, as the compact nature of the city gave way to the expansion of city boundaries and the "streetcar suburb"-- streetcars and elevated railroads encouraged the upper classes to relocate from downtown to more secluded neighborhoods-- downtowns became mainly commercial centers-- working classes and immigrants concentrated in the inner city-- cities were also expanding upward through the development of the skyscraper, which came to represent the new urban skyline-- more population meant more public disease, more crime, and more need for municipal services-- overcrowded tenement buildings created unsanitary health conditions, and reformers like Jacob Riis documented these conditions-- cities also gained the reputation of being dangerous and crime-ridden, and a place to be avoided-- city planners attempted to "open up" the city by building parks (Central Park, for example) and other areas to remove the sense of urban congestion

--Consumer Culture-- in the Gilded Age, emphasis began to shift toward national brands instead of local ones, and purchases based on "want" rather than "need"-- railroads changed distribution patterns in favor of a national economy-- advertising became an important way to influence consumer decision-making-- another factor was the introduction of the department store, which increased the variety of goods available to the public, and mail-order catalogs, which made items available even outside of cities-- both institutions offered free shipping and guaranteed returns-- department stores in particular became symbols of cities, and represented the new consumerism

-- Political Culture-- politics were important to the everyday life of many citizens-- partisan affiliation was a badge of honor, and participation in election activity was widespread-- the Republicans generally favored expanded government while Democrats supported limited government-- the tariff was a major issue, with most Republicans in support of protective duties and Democrats arguing that they hurt farmers and workers-- the debate over "hard" or "soft" currency split along party and regional lines-- issues such as prohibition were often supported by Republicans and opposed by Democrats-- party organizations were highly structured, and party workers were expected to contribute to maintain the organization-- "machines" existed among Republicans and Democrats, and in both cities and rural states-- "machines" appealed to voters by catering to the everyday needs of their constituencies-- voting participation was high, though restricted mainly to white males, and party loyalty was strong-- campaigns concentrated on appealing to their own supporters, not converting their opponents

-- Democrats established a base in the South, Republicans in New England and the Midwest, and elections often depended upon several "swing states"-- national voting patterns were very stable before 1890, and many historians argue that party affiliation was influenced by "ethnocultural" factors-- "pietists" (the native-born, Methodists, ect.) trending Republican, and "ritualists" (immigrants, Catholics, ect.) more likely Democratic-- in many cases, these ethnocultural factors seemed to outweigh other considerations

--National politics, 1877-90-- Hayes came into the presidency after the disputed 1876 election-- he removed federal troops from the South, and authorized use of troops in the 1877 railroad strike-- overall, Hayes' term was competent and relatively uneventful-- in 1880 a factional dispute between the "Stalwarts" and "Half-Breeds" deadlocked the Republicans, until James Garfield (backed by anti-Stalwarts) emerged as a compromise-- Chester Arthur, a Stalwart, became his running-mate-- after winning a close election, Garfield was shot by a Stalwart who had been refused a job through the "spoils system"-- Garfield died of his wounds, and opinion turned in favor of civil service reform-- surprisingly, Arthur became a supporter of reform, and did not "live down" to his reputation-- in 1884, the charismatic James Blaine (Republican), who was accused of being corrupt, ran against Grover Cleveland (Democrat), who was revealed to have supported an illegitimate child-- the campaign grew nasty, and in the end may have been decided by a Republican speaker's claim that Democrats represented "rum, Romanism, and rebellion", alienating Irish Catholics-- Cleveland won a close election, and gained a reputation of incorruptibility in office-- however, his actions (on the tariff, civil service, and pensions) also caused opposition-- in 1888 Cleveland won the popular vote but lost the electoral vote to Benjamin Harrison-- Republican control of the White House and Congress led to a burst of legislation, including the Sherman Antitrust Act, the Sherman Silver Purchase Act, and the McKinley Tariff

-- Gilded Age reformers-- "reform" proceeded in several ways--in politics, Mugwumps and other reformers wanted "good government", cleaner elections, and a rise in "intelligent voting"-- the Australian ballot was a part of their effort to de-emphasize political parties-- utopian reformers focused on a particular solution to society's problems, as in the case of Edward Bellamy (Looking Backward) or Henry George (single tax)-- social reformers were motivated by urban problems and moral uplift-- settlement houses such as Jane Addams' Hull-House placed social workers in the midst of urban slums to improve the community-- prohibitionists emphasized getting rid of the saloon to improving society and clean up politics

--Western expansion-- population of "the West" grew nearly tenfold in the Gilded Age-- largely because of this, the nation's acreage under settlement and cultivation more than doubled-- some land was given away under the Homestead Act, but most was sold by either the government or railroads-- most migrants into the West came as family units, and had been a landowner "back East"-- many migrants moved several times after their initial move West-- land and weather conditions varied-- land might be ill-suited for farming, or rainfall might not be enough to grow crops

--the end of the frontier-- by 1890, there was no longer a defined "frontier line"-- this affected Americans' perception that there was still untamed wilderness for the nation to expand-- Frederick Turner's 1893 speech on the frontier's significance was important because of the symbolic nature of the frontier-- the West's symbolism was celebrated in the image of the cowboy and Buffalo Bill's Wild West Show, even after the West had been domesticated

--agricultural expansion-- farming production increased during the Gilded Age because more acres were being farmed-- this was partly due to settlement of the West, but also due to use of farm machinery that enabled more acres to be farmed with the same labor-- as with factories and corporations, consolidation of acreage resulted in larger farms, and more concentration was given to "cash crops"-- for farmers, new machinery and rising land values decreased profits and made it difficult to buy land-- in good farming regions, many leased their land, and in the South sharecropping often put tenants into perpetual debt-- overproduction led to falling farm prices, and farmers believed they were being exploited by railroads-- dependence on the market and urban businesses lessened farmers' economic self-reliance

--Native American policies-- Western settlers saw the presence of Indian tribes as an obstacle to settling the region-- during the Gilded Age, nearly all tribes were placed under the reservation system-- most battles between the Army and tribes occurred early in the period, capped by the Wounded Knee battle of 1890-- once tribes had been placed on reservations, the strategy was to Americanize them and to end tribal traditions-- the Dawes Act (1887) attempted to break up communal landholding by giving families their own land to farm-- the program was underfunded, hurt by the corruption of federal Indian agents, and often gave families unfarmable land-- reformers also attempted to aid Indians by setting up Indian schools where the most promising students could be educated-- these programs were carried out under the assumption that the best result for Indians would be the end of tribal ties and their Americanization-- however, the result of policies was increasing dependence of tribes on the federal government

-- Immigration-- nearly 12 million immigrants entered the US in the Gilded Age, some as temporary "birds of passage"-- immigration was changing from being predominantly northern European (German, English) in origin to being mainly southern and eastern European (Italian, Russian, Polish)-- immigrants had reasons for leaving (economic, religious), and for coming to America (jobs, family connections)-- entry points such as Ellis Island determined who would stay, and those selected mostly settled in northeastern and midwestern cities, where communities of immigrants aided newcomers-- most "new" immigrants became laborers or industrial workers-- many native-born Americans reacted against "new" immigration, believing that immigrant groups could not adapt to mainstream society-- other sympathetic reformers attempted to change immigrant culture-- at its most extreme, anti-immigrant organizations targeted immigrants, especially Catholic ones, as being too different-- other groups called for immigration limits-- in California, the American Workingman's Party promoted anti-Chinese legislation, and Congress passed bans against the entry of Chinese laborers

--Women and the "separate sphere"-- the ideal in the Gilded Age was a division of responsibilities between the sexes-- men controlling business and politics, women as a "moral compass" tending to the home and family-- how closely this ideal was followed depended upon class and economics-- married working-class women often worked either in factories or within the home to help support a family-- single women found clerical jobs, or concentrated in the "feminized" occupations of teaching and nursing-- middle-and upper class women found new outlets in higher education, women's clubs, or social reform-- supporters of female suffrage campaigned for the vote, arguing that women could help "clean up" the political system-- the issue was pursued on a state-by-state basis, where it was often combined with matters such as prohibition

--Small towns-- rural and small town populations declined in the Gilded Age-- many factors determined whether an individual would stay or leave a small town-- landowners and owners of businesses were more likely to stay, as were older families and those with extended family obligations-- many towns were centered around a town square or the railroad line, and surrounding farmers set aside "shopping days" to socialize in the town-- otherwise, farmers often felt isolation in the countryside, a feeling eased by farmers' meetings, regular mail delivery and telephone service-- especially in the Midwest, small towns were the backbone of the Republican Party, and community leaders often led the way in political influence

-- The "New South"-- after 1877, "redeemer" governments took power in the South, promising an end to Reconstruction and a return to pre-Civil War society-- however, the region was far behind the North in industrialization and personal income-- leaders such as Henry Grady called on the South to push industrialization strategies-- industrial output increased through the Gilded Age, financed by Northern interests-- railroads, textiles, and iron were among the fastest-growing sectors-- urbanization followed, although not at the levels of the North-- efforts to move away from dependence on cotton failed, making agriculture a vulnerable area-- devotion to the Lost Cause of the Confederacy increased as a way to retain the romantic aspect of the past

--Jim Crow-- in postwar years, Southern society was unsettled-- old boundaries had been destroyed by the war but new standards were in flux-- during this time, African-Americans were persecuted but also enjoyed new freedoms-- in the 1880's, efforts began to institute legal segregation ("Jim Crow") and political isolation-- this coincided with increasing racial segregation in the North as well-- in 1896, the Plessy V. Ferguson case allowed segregation under "separate but equal" standards-- Southern states mandated segregation in transportation, dining, lodging, and many other areas-- at the same time, fears of African-American voting strength prompted limits on their political participation-- literacy tests, grandfather clauses, and poll taxes virtually eliminated black registration and decreased white registration as well-- lynchings and other instances of violence increased in the later Gilded Age

--African-American society-- 90% of blacks lived in the South, most in rural areas-- tenant arrangements such as sharecropping put many farmers in permanent debt-- less money was spent on African-American schools-- because of segregation, "mirror" societies grew up among African-Americans, catering to the needs of the community-- Booker T. Washington, the head of Tuskegee Institute, argued that economic self-sufficiency would lead to progress in civil and political rights, and in his "Atlanta Compromise" speech seemed to accept segregation and a gradualist approach-- critics labeled him an accomodationist with Jim Crow, but he was the most prominent African-American voice-- by 1900, dissenters such as W.E.B. Dubois argued for more emphasis on civil rights-- Dubois himself faced criticism for apparent elitism by emphasizing the fortunes of the "talented tenth" of the community

-- Images of the Gilded Age-- art and literature saw conflict between "realists" and "romanticists"-- "realists" wanted to use a less restricted vision of society in their work, and be more "truthful" in their portrayals-- it would democratize the arts and emphasize the need for reform-- Theodore Dreiser (Sister Carrie) was among the "realists"-- Mark Twain (Samuel Clemens) became the best-known author of the period, combining humor, regional themes, satire, and skepticism-- artists also tried the expand the scope of their work into more "realism", as with Thomas Eakins' The Gross Clinic and Thomas Anshutz's Ironworkers: Noontime

-- Mass culture-- a national culture began to form, helped by expansion of newspapers into more homes-- the "yellow journalism" of Joseph Pulitzer and William Randolph Hearst was more sensationalistic and more accessible to the public-- circulation increased, creating a national audience-- "dime novels" also were popular across the country, featuring "serials" starring characters like western heroes or Frank Merriwell-- recreation was more commonly available to Americans, whether a day trip to a Coney Island beach or a longer trip to locations like Mackinac Island or a Wisconsin retreat-- baseball parks were another recreation option growing in popularity, and baseball itself consolidated itself as a national attraction through the organizational dominance of the National League and nationwide popularity for its stars

--"Conspicuous consumption"-- the class of "new millionaires" often made public displays of their wealth-- proponents of "social Darwinism" argued that millionaires were justified due to the "survival of the fittest"-- the social critic Thorstein Veblen coined the phrase "conspicuous consumption" to explain behavior of the wealthy-- unconcern with business, concentration on elaborate hobbies, and exhibition of wealth through parties and expensive purchases were designed to enhance social status-- multi-million dollar mansions and outlandish parties were among the public displays of "conspicuous consumption"-- in time, displays of prosperity trickled down to the middle class (tipping)

--Agrarian discontent-- farmers' problems included falling prices, increased expenses and increasing farm debt-- many farmers believed they were the crucial "producers" in the economy-- their declining status was evidence of banker and railroad conspiracies against their interests-- this led to suspicion of urban America and their increasing dominance of society-- in the 1870's, The Grange evolved into an issue-oriented organization, focusing on railroad regulation-- at their peak, over 1 million joined The Grange-- other farmers supported monetary inflation promised by the Greenback movement

--Farmer's Alliances and Populism-- in the 1880's, Farmer's Alliances centered in the South gained strength, and expanded into other regions-- Southern, Northern, and Colored Farmer's Alliances were organized-- especially in the Plains and Midwest, Farmer's Alliances explored political action-- farmer-based third parties elected congressmen in 1890, and strengthened calls for a national party-- in 1892, the People's Party was formed-- in their Omaha Platform, the party stood for minting silver, a "subtreasury" system to allow crop storage and low-interest loans, popular election of senators, and government ownership of transportation and communication systems-- the platform also served as a rhetorical call to arms for farmers and their supporters-- Populist support tended to come from "middle-class" farmers who were vulnerable to railroad rates and market fluctuation-- historians debate whether Populism was a progressive force or a backward-looking movement which tended toward intolerance

--politics and "free silver"-- Republicans suffered defeats in 1890, partly because of support for issues (prohibition, English-only education) that alienated some party membership-- Populists and many Democrats concentrated on the "free silver" issue, arguing for increased silver coinage and monetary inflation to ease debts-- they called for gold and silver to maintain a 16:1 ratio (16 oz. silver = 1 oz. gold), but the market value of silver was far less-- this caused silver operators to sell silver to the government in return for certificates redeemable in more valuable gold-- in 1892, Populists campaigned in favor of free silver-- Grover Cleveland and the Democrats criticized Populists for over-reliance on silver, and Republicans for overspending-- Harrison was renominated with little enthusiasm, and Cleveland returned to the White House by winning critical northeastern states-- Populists won several Plains and Western states

--1893: the Colombian Exposition in Chicago presented the achievements of American industry, and provided a popular attraction for millions in 1893-- the Court of Honor ("White City") was designed to represent harmony and balance, and was an example of how city planning could improve urban America-- out-of-towners were attracted by special "days" and promotional guides-- opinions of the exposition were enthusiastic, whether of the White City or the midway attractions-- on one level, the fair represented America's successes, but 1893 was also a time of a severe economic depression-- business and banking failures sent the economy into a tailspin-- unemployment was about 25%, and hundreds of banks failed-- Cleveland believed the collapse was because of lack of confidence due to gold draining from the treasury-- he persuaded Congress to repeal the Silver Purchase Act, which alienated him from silver Democrats-- the "run" on gold continued, stopped only by bond issues which were brokered by J.P. Morgan-- protest movements such as "Coxey's Army" called for government action-- by 1896, the nation was in turmoil, and Cleveland left office unpopular among the public

--1896 election-- Republicans chose gold-standard man William McKinley, who was promoted by industrialist and strategist Mark Hanna-- Democrats were excited by William Jennings Bryan's dramatic "Cross of Gold" speech and nominated him for president-- Populists chose "fusion" with Bryan's Democrats, despite worries it would destroy their independence-- the silver issue split the parties, with "gold Democrats" and "silver Republicans" crossing party lines-- Bryan conducted an extensive personal campaign, and his appearances often resembled religious revivals in their enthusiasm-- McKinley ran a "front-porch" campaign, but Hanna raised millions from businesses, and ran a large-scale speaking and advertising campaign-- McKinley promised prosperity, and capitalized on business fears of "free silver"-- some ritualist Democrats also feared Bryan's fundamentalist views-- McKinley won a solid victory, and Bryan only won southern and western states-- the 1896 election began a period of Republican dominance in national elections, particularly in the Northeast-- Populists saw their party decimated from fusion-- the election saw large voting shifts, possibly due to cultural concerns (ritualists going Republican, pietists going Democratic)-- Bryan alienated many ritualists, and McKinley ran as a candidate of cultural tolerance

--McKinley and Empire-- after 1896, economic conditions improved-- McKinley's policies included a tariff increase (Dingley Tariff) and the Gold Standard Act-- gold discoveries had increased the money supply, allowing the abandonment of silver coinage-- farm prices rose, ushering in the "Golden Age of Agriculture"-- much of McKinley's legacy involved foreign affairs-- during the Gilded Age, foreign trade had steadily grown, and naval expansion followed suit-- gradual moves toward a more aggressive international policy (such as the 1895 Venezuelan dispute with the British) led to popular support of Cuban revolutionaries-- Hearst and Pulitzer newspapers drummed up a conflict with the Spanish Empire, and McKinley began negotiations with Spain over Cuba's future-- the explosion which sank the USS Maine in Havana Harbor (1898) intensified public opinions, and Spain's reluctance to agree to US demands led to a declaration of war-- a volunteer army was raised, despite logistical and supply problems, and troops were landed in Cuba-- Theodore Roosevelt's "Roughriders" attracted media attention-- within a month the Spanish had been defeated-- in addition, a US fleet commanded by Commodore Dewey had destroyed the Spanish fleet in Manila Bay-- the US colonized the Philippines, Guam, and Puerto Rico-- some criticized this as "imperialism" and contrary to US tradition, while supporters argued that these colonies could be "civilized" and that an empire would prove the fitness of the American character-- in China, the US promoted the Open Door policy, to open Asian markets to the US and restrict the domination of European traders

--the end of the Gilded Age-- Bryan once again challenged McKinley in 1900-- attempts to run against imperialism failed, and another free silver campaign was unsuccessful-- for the Republicans, the focus was on territorial expansion and the "full dinner pail"-- Roosevelt was nominated for vice president, partly because of his war hero status-- McKinley won a decisive victory, but in 1901 he was shot and killed by Leon Czolgosz, a self-proclaimed anarchist, making Roosevelt the new president